Economic Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Its Association with Socioeconomic Factors in the Wof-Washa Natural State Forest, North Shewa Zone, Ethiopia

The Wof-Washa Natural State Forest (WWNSF) in Ethiopia harbors remarkable biodiversity but faces threats from local communities, climate change, and a lack of awareness regarding its preservation. Although numerous studies exist, the economic value of the forest's ecosystem services (FESs) has been largely overlooked. Thus, the purposes of this study were to identify FESs, estimate their total economic value, and assess challenges with possible strategies for sustainable forest management. The research employed Google Earth to estimate forest area and socioeconomic surveys with field visits to gather data from 368 participants for analyzing the FESs, monetary values, and challenges with possible strategies. Analyses included descriptive statistics, total economic valuation (TEV), and an ordinary least squares regression model. The study revealed that the WWNSF provides crucial provisioning services (timber, honey, water, and firewood), regulating services (soil erosion control and climate change mitigation), and supporting services (soil formation and nutrient cycling). The forest's annual contribution to sampled households averaged $1152.30, with regulating and cultural services valued at $14,112 and $622.00, respectively. The study also revealed that male-headed households, larger families, and those having limited farmland and off-farm income depended more heavily on the forest. Therefore, farmland scarcity, settlements, and tree harvesting for firewood, timber, and agricultural tools, as well as the lack of employment opportunities, were the main challenges encountered in the study area. This suggests that despite degradation and reduction in size due to human pressures, the WWNSF remains a significant source of socioeconomic and ecological benefits, supporting local livelihoods and biodiversity. To ensure the forest's restoration, prioritizing community participation, promoting family planning, providing alternative income opportunities especially for youth, and balancing resource use with conservation efforts are possible strategies that should be taken into account.


Introduction
Forests are a cornerstone of our planet's health, ofering immense economic, ecological, and cultural value.Recognizing this importance, global eforts began in the early 20th century to protect and manage forests efectively.Tese eforts aim to preserve valuable forest products (like timber), sustain ecological functions (nutrient and water cycle), and safeguard unique cultural and aesthetic landscapes [1].
Ethiopia, a biodiversity hotspot, exemplifes this need for forest conservation; its diverse landscapes boast an abundance of woody fora and contribute signifcantly to the Horn of Africa's natural resources [2].Tese forests are vital habitats, safeguarding agricultural diversity and preserving Ethiopia's biodiversity [3].Tey also provide a range of products beyond timber, including bamboo, honey, medical plants, and incense [4].Notably, forests have the potential to contribute signifcantly to Ethiopia's climate change mitigation goals [3].Te benefts that humans derive from ecosystems are termed ecosystem services (ES).When provided specifcally by forests, these are referred to as forest ecosystem services (FES) [5].Forest ecosystems (FESs) are multiuse natural resources known for their potentiality in providing various ESs [6].Te ESs were introduced to raise awareness of the importance and conservation of biodiversity [7].FESs can be categorized as provisioning, cultural, regulating, and supporting services based on their benefts to human well-being and ecology.Te service areas provided by the ecosystem are also referred to as "natural capital" due to their contribution to biodiversity that benefts humans [7].Forests are therefore the main providers of ESs, crucial for life support systems [6,8].Te FESs ofer direct (material and nonmaterial) and indirect benefts to human well-being, including raw materials, aesthetics, and cultural and ecosystem regulations [4,9,10].
However, the tropical forest and other vegetation cover including inland waters have declined due to agricultural expansion, population growth [6], erosion and sedimentation, traditional shifting cultivation, intensive agriculture, and urbanization [11][12][13].Particularly, forests in Africa, including in Ethiopia, have faced serious deforestation, which occurs when forestland is converted to nonforested land for agriculture, grazing, or urban development [14].According to FAO [15], deforestation in tropical forests from 1990 to 2016 was severe and extensive [15], and Ethiopia's landscape was severely degraded [6,16].Biru [17] reported that deforestation has resulted in reducing 40% of the country's land mass covered with forest in the beginning of the 20th century to 2.3% in 2000.Tis in turn has led to loss of biodiversity, degradation of soils, climate change, hydrological modifcation, and desertifcation.Despite Ethiopia's oldest proclaimed state forest which is rich in biodiversity, WWNSF is the most threatened ecosystem [18].According to Haike et al. [19], the forest cover of WWNSF had decreased by 4.58% since 2000-2022.
Many studies have been conducted in WWNSF with respect to foristic composition [20], plant diversity and structural analysis [21], vegetation ecology and carbon stock [22], tourism potentials [23], impact of altitude and anthropogenic disturbance on plant species' diversity and structure [24], and efects of forest cover changes on ESs [6].However, the FESs and their economic values generated by the WWNSF have not yet been studied, in particular, and even at the national level, in general.Te socioeconomic factors infuencing forest dependence were also not addressed.Moreover, the stakeholders responsible for the protection and use of WWNSF were unknown.Even the local communities lack understanding of the FESs, such as carbon sequestration, soil erosion control, water purifcation, and oxygen regulation.Rather, they perceive the forest as a wasteland, resulting in the destruction of forests with a rapid decline in their area cover over time.Terefore, it is recommended to incorporate FESs and stakeholders' evaluation into decision-making processes to make informed decisions about the benefts and costs of diferent policy options involving natural resources [25,26].Hence, the contribution of this study is to estimate the total economic value of its various services, highlighting its crucial role in supporting local livelihoods.Tereby, this study could not only demonstrate the economic value of forests' benefts but also empower us to develop strategies alongside stakeholders.Tis collaborative approach would allow us to restore forest ecosystems, mitigate global warming, and emphasize the critical link between a healthy forest and the well-being of our entire planet.
It is therefore timely and urgent to conduct a research for assessing the FESs and estimating their monetary values in terms of money to show the contribution of the forest to local communities in supporting their subsistence livelihoods and maintaining biodiversity, as well as for identifying the challenges and the stakeholders to design the possible strategies used to minimize the local people's pressures impacting the forest.Terefore, the objectives of this study were to: (1) identify the main FESs provided by WWNSF; (2) estimate the cost of each FES based on the current local, national, and/or global market values; (3) analyze the association between household's socioeconomic characteristics and FESs' economic values; and (4) assess stakeholders, the main challenges, and their possible strategies for sustainable forest management in the study area.

Methodology
2.1.Study Area.Tis research was carried out in WWNSF of the North Shewa Zone, the Amhara Regional State of central Ethiopia.It has geographic coordinates of 9 °42′-9 °47′ Northing and 39 °43′-39 °49′ Easting, located at an altitude range of 1,650-3,600 meters above sea level (masl) (Figure 1).It is bordered by the Tarmaber District in the north and northeast, the Ankober District in the south, and the Basona-Worena District in the west.Te study area is characterized by tropical Afromontane cool humid, cold and humid, and cold and moist climates [6].Te forest is likely well-drained, nutrient-rich volcanic soils typical of the Ethiopian highlands.Its vegetation is likely a complex mosaic of Afroalpine and Afromontane plant communities, with potential dominance by conifers, broadleaf evergreen, and bamboo [27].Sparse human settlements likely border the forest, with agricultural activities, potentially impacting the fringes.Te mean annual temperature of the area is 13.13 °C, with the mean annual minimum and maximum temperature being 6.3 °C and 2 °C, respectively.Te rainfall in the region follows a bimodal distribution, with a mean annual rainfall of 1,840 mm.
As also reported by diferent documents of the agricultural ofces of the Ankober and Tarmabert districts, WWNASF websites, and other scholars, there are approximately 193 species of plants in the forest, besides wild cats, monkeys, baboons, and more than half of Ethiopia's highland bird species.

Reconnaissance
In addition, to account for nonparticipation in the survey, a 10% estimated sample of households was included, resulting in a total of 268 sample households.Subsequently, the sample households were selected using the simple random sampling (SRS) technique.Here, SRS is more suitable to select appropriate households which represent entire households in the community from each kebele as follows: ( Accordingly, as shown in Table 1, Wof-Washa Kebele of the Tarmaber District, and Laygorebela, Mehal-wonz, and Zego Kebeles of the Ankober District were the sampling sites selected for collecting the questionnaire-based data pertinent to the FES and WWNSF stakeholders.Te aforementioned three kebeles of Ankober district bordered WWNSF.

Scientifca
In addition, 60 household leaders near WWNSF were selected for key informant interviews (KIIs).Various stakeholders including the Forest Development and Rehabilitation Program Zone Ofcer, District and Kebele Ofcers, REDD + project staf, and community members were also interviewed.We also conducted four focus group discussions (FGDs) (one per Kebele) in the two districts to better understand the community's perception of the mission.Focus group discussion (FGD) could help reveal true feelings and understanding, besides increasing our chances of understanding.Group size was ten participants.Finally, the total participants for this study were 368.

Descriptive Statistics and Total Economic Valuation.
Diferent evaluation models/methods were used to assess the FESs and stakeholders in the study area, including total economic valuation (TEV) (Table 2).In addition, percentage, frequency, and content (narration) analyses were applied.Hence, for displaying the results, tables and fgures were used.Terefore, the TEV was mainly use to estimate the total value of all types of FES by adding market values.Te TEV is typically calculated as the sum of direct and indirect benefts provided [25,28].

Valuing Provisioning FESs.
Structured and semistructured questionnaires were administered to household representatives (mainly heads) to gather data on provisioning services.Local measurements such as bundle (Esir local name) for quantifying frewood and fodder; Jar (Jerikan) for water provision for household consumption, cattle watering, and home garden cultivation; and counting individual byproducts (like timber and farming tools) were used to quantify these services.Te value of ecosystem services (ESs) was then derived by combining several factors.First, consensus information was used to determine the average amount of ESs required per household, such as the average number of livestock per household.Ten, these community-specifc averages were combined with average market prices for each relevant commodity.To determine market prices where no established market existed, participants were asked to reach a consensus on a theoretical selling price for a specifc good.
A limitation of the data acquisition technique arose from the community's concern that the data might be used for law enforcement purposes related to forest use.For instance, although they had used timber logging for their own house construction, forest encroachment for getting new farmland and honey harvesting from the forest, they attempted to hide the products they obtained during the survey.However, to address these biases, we actively communicated and made them aware about the true objectives of the study.

Monetary Estimates of WWNSF ES Values.
Te monetary values of the FES including regulating, supporting, cultural aspects, and provisioning were estimated using the standard cost estimation method ($/ha) for tropical forest areas [9,29].

Linear Regression
Analysis.An Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression model was used to examine the relationship between the total annual value of provisioning FES per household (dependent variable) and various independent variables.Independent variables included characteristics of the household heads (sex, age, education, family size, land size, and of-farm activities).Te standard OLS regression equation was provided as follows, explaining the role of coefcients, intercept, and residuals.
Y i is the dependent variable, while X i ′ s are independent variables.β i ′ s are regression coefcients, and β 0 is the regression intercept; it predicts the expected value for Y if all independent variables are zero.Te residual errors, ϵ i , in the regression equation account for the unexplained values not accounted for by the model.Multicollinearity, a potential issue where independent variables may highly correlate, was assessed using tolerance and Variance Infation Factor (VIF) values.High VIF values indicate redundancy.In the OLS regression analysis, variables with a p value less than 0.05 were considered statistically signifcant in explaining the dependent variable (total FES value).

Data Processing and Tools.
Collected data were entered into SPSS version 25 for editing and cleaning.Cleaned data were then exported to STATA 14.2 software for statistical analysis.

Respondent Characterization.
A total of 268 households participated in the study (summarized in Table 3).Of the total, 246 (91.8%) were men and 22 (8.2%) were women Regarding family size, 47% had six or more family members, and most households had ≤1 ha of land per family/household (85.8%).Other authors also reported similar land size per household [30][31][32] from Ethiopia.Tis indicates that land is scarce and households need to resort to additional activities or tree harvesting to provide food security for their families.Yet, only a small portion (15.3%) participated in offarm activities such as tree seed collection, guard duties, poultry rearing, and apiculture (Table 3).Similar study also suggested those additional subsequent mitigation measures such as providing energy sources, market plantations, and conserving remnant natural forests [17].

Major FESs Derived from WWNSF.
Te FESs of WWNSF were grouped into four categories in the current study, as also reported by some other authors [30][31][32] and by Shiferaw et al. [6] and Muche et al. [4] for aquatic and forest ecosystems, respectively.Te forest provided timber, frewood, farming tools, and water for humans and animals.Te forest also ofered cultural services such as recreation and traditional ceremonies, as well as regulating and supporting services such as climate regulation, soil erosion control, water and sediment retention, soil formation, nutrient cycling, and waste treatment.It also provided soil formation and habitat services for fora and fauna.Besides conducting the survey for collecting and identifying the plant specimens from the forest, other scholars [20,22] reported various plant species found in WWNSF (Supplementary fle (available here)).Moreover, key informants and stakeholders also reported that the WWNSF supported various native plant species such as Podocarpus falcatus, Juniperus procera, Polyscias fulva, Olea capensis, and Rhus species as well as wild animals such as Colobus, monkeys, and apes.

Estimated Provisioning FESs.
Te value of ESs comes from community-specifc averages for the FES needed, combined with average market prices.Tis information is based on the consensus of the respondents.If there is no market price, participants must agree on a theoretical selling Scientifca price for certain goods.Table 4 shows the average and range of FESs values for provisioning goods, calculated using data from household respondents in the study area.Consequently, frewood had the highest price per household per year, followed by water supply for human and animal watering and timber production.On the other hand, the farming tool used for plowing (Eref) had the lowest value, with the horizontal beam (Mofer) and the yoke (Kenber) having slightly higher values, respectively.However, according to Krause et al. [33], freshwater and crops were the most important provisioning services that the local people obtained from the study area in the Oromia Region.Tis variation might be due to the fact that the estimation or valuation of the ESs conducted by Krause et al. [33] was derived from diferent land uses such as vegetative and cropland, which could encompass a very large area, where water and crop could be in abundance.

Total Estimated Provisioning FES.
Each household sampled received an annual amount of provisioning FESs ranging from $206.74 to $1,957.67, with an average of $1,152.30.Te forest-surrounding community also earned an average income of $1,152.30per year, as the sample mean represents the population mean (Table 5).Tis implies that local communities get many additional incomes from the WWNSF, thus supporting their subsistence livelihoods, despite not yet understanding it well.Krause et al. [33] also confrmed that provisioning ESs is naturally and highly essential to people's livelihoods.

Monetary Estimates of WWNSF ESs.
Te FESs summarized in Table 6 are assigned a monetary value using the standard cost estimation method ($/ha) for tropical forest areas, based on the size of the WWNSF.Among the FESs, raw materials had the highest estimated value of $2,214,986, followed by erosion control at $1,722,767 and climate regulation at $1,568,069.Cultural services had the lowest estimated cost at $14,063.4,followed by genetic resources at $28,299.7.Te total estimated cost of all FES amounted to be $14,112,622.00,which is high value generated from the WWNST.Similarly, according to Krause et al. [33], the highest TEV was obtained from forest ecosystems compared to each of the grassland and cropland ecosystems.If locals were enforced to pay this amount, it would be impossible or unafordable.But, it is very essential to let them know the benefts of WWNST in terms of money, calculated here to make them realize and understand its uses, thus properly conserving and managing forests.

Regression Analysis.
In Table 7, we encounter the Rvalue, a statistic similar to the correlation coefcient.Tis value stands as an indicator of the strength of the relationship between the two variables.Remarkably, the Rvalue in this study was 0.693, signifying a robust relationship and a well-performing predictive model.In addition, the Rsquared value, represented as R 2 , explains 54% of the variation in the outcome variable (total FESs).Essentially, this means that 54% of the variance in the data can be attributed to the predictor variables.Tis highlights the importance of considering socioeconomic and demographic factors when designing forest management strategies and promoting sustainable forest use.Table 8 explores the signifcance of the model, including independent variables, as a predictor of the outcome variable.Tis assessment was conducted through analysis of variance (ANOVA), resulting in a signifcance value of less than p ≤ 0.05 (specifcally, F � 3.298, p ≤ 0.000).Consequently, we can assert with confdence that the regression model signifcantly predicts the overall FESs.

Parameter Estimates.
Te fndings regarding household characteristics ofer valuable insights into forest dependency patterns (shown in Table 9).An interesting diference emerged when considering gender and forest dependency.Our study revealed that male-headed households were more involved in utilizing forest products (β � 24.10, p ≤ 0.019).In contrast, Garekae et al. [34] found women relying more heavily on forest resources due to traditional roles.Tis diference could be due to several factors specifc to our study area, such as cultural norms or market access opportunities.Terefore, understanding how gender roles infuence forest resource use is crucial to ensure equitable forest management practices [35].
Our fndings revealed a positive and signifcant relationship between family size and the value of forest ecosystem services (FES) derived by the family (β � 362.94, p ≤ 0.000 and β � 207.56, p ≤ 0.013).Tis aligns with Project [36] and Tolera [37], who found that larger families collect more forest products, likely due to both increased labor availability and potentially higher consumption needs.Tis suggests the importance of considering household composition when evaluating forest resource-use patterns.Furthermore, other studies, such as Egoh et al. [38], suggest that strategies promoting sustainable forest use should consider the needs of larger families.Tere was an inverse correlation between the age of household heads and their dependence on forests.In other words, households led by younger individuals (aged 20-30 years) had a higher average dependence on forest resources compared to those led by older individuals (aged 46-60 years and over 60 years).Tis diference was statistically signifcant (β � −68.91, p ≤ 0.416).Tis fnding aligns with research by Garekae et al. [34] and suggests a potential decline in resource collection efciency with age.Older adults may be less able to efciently collect, transport, and sell forest products compared to younger individuals.Furthermore, this study highlights the importance of considering factors such as household heads' health status and access to alternative income sources.Tese factors can also infuence dependence on forest resources.Based on these fndings, forestry programs could beneft from incorporating support mechanisms for older adults who rely on forest resources [39].Tis could help ensure their wellbeing and promote sustainable forest management.
Our research found that education level did not necessarily decrease reliance on forest ecosystem services (FES).6 Scientifca For example, households led by individuals with 5-8 years of education had an average of $227.38 higher dependence on FES compared to households with an illiterate head (β � 227.38, p ≤ 0.029).Tis aligns with the fndings of Acharya et al. [40], who reported a positive association between education and willingness to pay for forest benefts.

Scientifca
Tis could be due to limited alternative income opportunities in the study area, emphasizing the importance of considering local context when interpreting the impact of educational attainment on forest dependence [39].Te size of a household's landholding afects the annual value of the Forest Ecosystem Service (FES).Households with more farmland tend to have lower FES values.Specifcally, households with larger landholdings exceeding 2 hectares have an FES value $28.55 lower than those with 0.5 hectares or less (β � −28.55, p ≤ 0.0065).Tis suggests that larger landholdings allow households to meet their needs through agriculture, thereby reducing their reliance on forest resources.Tis fnding aligns with previous research by Sunderlin et al. [41].
While there was a negative correlation between of-farm activities and the annual value of forest resources collected (FES), this correlation was not statistically signifcant.In other words, households engaged in of-farm activities like trading, tree seed collection, security work, poultry farming, and beekeeping earned an average of $52.82 less per year from forest resources (β � −52.82, p ≤ 0.487) compared to those who did not participate in such activities.However, the specifc type of of-farm activity might be important, with some activities potentially decreasing forest dependence more than others [42].Tis aligns with research by Hong et al. [43] which suggests that diversifying income sources can lead to a reduced reliance on forest resources.
Multicollinearity tests were performed using the variance infation coefcient (VIF) and error tolerance, as indicated in Table 9.If the VIF exceeds 10 or the tolerance falls below 0.1, it indicates the presence of severe multicollinearity, which requires correction.However, based on the current fndings, these two values do not violate the assumption of multicollinearity (Table 9).
Test of the normality of residuals: Te histogram indicates that the distribution did not exhibit longer tails compared to the normal distribution and did not violate the assumption of normality of residuals (Figure 2).
Normal probability plot: Te normality of the residuals can also be verifed by examining the customary P-P plot of the normalized residuals of the regression.In Figure 3, it can be concluded that no point deviates signifcantly from the diagonal, indicating that the residuals conform to a normal distribution.Overall, the graph did not show any indications of anomalies, outliers, or unidentifed variables (Figure 3).
Residuals versus predicted (fts) plot: Te plot of residuals versus predicted values shows a well-behaved plot.Te points are randomly distributed around zero and do not show any systematic pattern.Tere are no clusters of points representing distinct groups in the data.In general, there are no discernible patterns in the residual plots, suggesting that a linear model is suitable for modeling these data (Figure 4).

Main Risk
Factors for Forest Sustainability.Figure 5 presents the perceptions of the respondents about the main risk factors that afect forest sustainability, measured on a two-point scale ranging from very signifcant to signifcant.Te results of the analysis indicate that the scarcity of farmland, the expansion of settlements, the logging of frewood and timber, and agricultural tools, as well as the lack of employment opportunities were the main drivers of forest degradation.Moreover, population growth, little or no alternative opportunities, and lack of sustainable land-use management are other challenges in Ethiopia [33] in general, and in the present study area, in particular.Arjjumend et al. [44] also reported similar results of the challenges encountered in Nechsar National Park of the country such as

Scientifca
the Ofce of Justice and Security and Culture and Tourism played a role in resolving conficts and promoting forest conservation.Te Orthodox Development Organization provided basic consumable items to help farmers modernize agriculture.Similarly, the People for People Organization introduced modernizing agriculture and community life improvement packages, distributed fuel-efcient stoves, and more.Tus, the involvement and participation of the stakeholders are very vital for socioeconomic and ecological sustainability of the forest ecosystem [44].
3.9.Suggested Strategies.Te stakeholders and informants expressed their concerns about the challenges of the forests and the endangered biodiversity.Terefore, they suggested strategies that can conserve forests and sustainably beneft the local community.Among the suggested strategies, raising awareness in the community, training and educating the stakeholders and selected individuals, developing guidelines and providing training, and protecting the forest from human and animal interference were forwarded.Other strategies included giving awards to those who are active in forest aforestation and protection, conducting research, preventing forest fres, and strengthening the governmental and nongovernmental institutions for generating their signifcant contributions, and fnally to maintain the forest ecosystem health, thereby achieving the maximum FESs.Still, other strategies such as carbon trade or revenue and enrichment plantings of fast-growing endemic tree species to provide a sustainable fuel wood supply are crucial to  10 Scientifca increase benefts to the communities [45].Ayenew and Tesfay [29] also recommended that awareness creation (to local communities) and capacity building in forest hydrology (to local experts), and understanding the relationship between water and forest ecosystem are very vital for a suitable use of forest resources.Moreover, it must be considered to improve the living conditions or provide alternatives to local rural communities that traditionally meet their needs for forest products as well as to develop transsectorial policies to harmonize Ethiopian land-use policies [33].For enhancing the participation of the stakeholders in the sustainable management of the forest ecosystems, increasing public awareness and their participation through training and education, organizing annual events (such as Annual Tree Planting Day, Tree Day, World Environment day, Day for Biological Diversity, and the like), strengthening the roles of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, and enforcement of policy and legislation and regulation measures should be considered [44].
3.10.Strength and Limitations.Tis study combined valuation with socioeconomic survey to understand how the forest contributes to the community's well-being.It provided unique insights by linking the economic value of forest services to specifc community characteristics, which is useful for sustainable management planning with community involvement.However, the study used crosssectional study design that is unable to establish causality between socioeconomic factors and FES dependence.
Moreover, the study relied on self-reported data for provisioning services, which might be biased, especially if respondents were hesitant due to law enforcement concerns.Still, our fndings may not be directly generalizable to other forest ecosystems.

Conclusions
Tis study highlights the signifcant socioeconomic and ecological benefts provided by the WWNSF to surrounding communities.Te forest ofers a wide range of provisioning, regulating, and supporting services, generating substantial income for local households.Te fndings demonstrate a clear correlation between proximity to the forest and the level of resource extraction, with households closest to the forest and those facing limited agricultural opportunities relying more heavily on forest resources.However, the study also identifes potential threats to the forest's sustainability.
Uncontrolled use and extraction of forest resources can lead to environmental degradation, including drought and soil erosion.To address these challenges, future forest management strategies should prioritize community involvement, explore alternative income sources (particularly for the younger generation), and promote stakeholders' collaboration.Furthermore, by valuing the full range of forest ecosystem services (FESs), decision-makers can make informed decisions regarding forest development and conservation.Tis study acknowledges limitations in capturing the complete value of FESs, particularly due to respondent hesitancy regarding certain forest products.Moreover, our fndings may not be directly generalizable to other forest ecosystems.Terefore, future researches should focus on addressing these gaps and explore similar valuations in diferent regions [46,47].

Figure 4 :
Figure 4: A plot of residual residuals versus predicted.

Figure 5 :
Figure 5: Te main risk factors that infuence the sustainability of the WWNSF.

Table 1 :
Number of respondents taken from the two districts with their respective kebeles with proportions of sex respondents.
skills to completing grade 12. Tis implies that the majority of the respondents were literate and active participants in generating and boosting the economy of the study area.

Table 3 :
Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of the household and the head of the household.

Table 4 :
Values of FES of WWNSF provisioning services per household per year.

Table 5 :
Te annual total estimated value of the provisioning FESs per household.

Table 6 :
Monetary estimated ecosystem values of WWNSF (tropical type) per year from the total area of the forest.

Table 7 :
Te model summary to show model ftness and total variation explained in the model.

Table 8 :
Analysis of variance to estimate testing the overall model.
awareness, and employment opportunities to local communities to minimize the burden on WWNSF.Tese stakeholders also supported community livelihoods through initiatives such as providing livestock and assisting with seedling planting and re-aforestation programs.In addition,